My purpose in writing this paper is to examine the notion of social consciousness in light of its potential contribution to music education.  To this end, concepts extracted from critical theory that relate to the formation of social consciousness are presented. Information gathered from interviews with music educators as part of a more extensive study is then discussed within this theoretical framework.  This is to demonstrate the necessity of the formation of a social consciousness within music education, in that music in education exists as a lived expression of culture and society.

 This discussion emerges from a perspective that views music, education, culture and society as interdependent, rather than isolated phenomena.  Each affects and is affected by the other.  Thus, to study music education in isolation from its societal and cultural influences is to deny a truly comprehensive understanding of its existence and raison d'etre.  Classroom and rehearsal practices, curricula, methodologies and philosophies are influenced by .outside" factors such as economy and politics, as well as societal and cultural traditions and expectations.  However, they in turn impact the cultural and musical beliefs, values and practices of a society and culture.

 If we are to realize the value of music education in the formation of social consciousness, it is necessary to study the multi-faceted relationship between music, education, culture and society, i.e., to look for constants, shared values and meanings, as well as inconsistencies and contradictions.  Such examination reveals insights concerning not only the nature of music in education, but also the nature of society and culture in general.  As Barbara Lundquist (1 985:55) states,

 Music is a way of knowing about life; of being human, and of communicating that humanity, in addition to being a competence, possibly even an intelligence.  So, in light of these assumptions, an ideal for socio-musical research would include combined cross-disciplinary and multi-level analysis of music phenomena that are cross-culturally replicated, focusing on problems that have implications not only for understanding music, but for informing about the transmission of music in different cultures.

Music in Education

 In an attempt to examine and comprehend the role of music in education (e.g., its philosophies, curricula, methodologies and practices), it becomes necessary to look beyond the classroom to the school, to the educational system, and to society and culture.  In a wider context of social, cultural, economic, and political ideals and practices, certain interrelationships and/or contradictions between and among various individuals and institutions may be explored in light of possible influences on music in education.

 Music is a human activity, a part of our social, physical, economic, historical and cultural world.  As such, Ballentine (1984: 21) insists that "no part of our activity can be understood by wrenching it out of the whole that gives it its meaning, and trying to understand it in isolation." Music does not exist as an isolated phenomenon any more than human beings exist as isolated individuals.  Musical behaviours are influenced both by the ideas people share and by the expectations other people have of their behaviour.  As Lundquist (1985) indicates, social institutions and processes directly affect music, music-making and music learning.  Such institutions and processes also benefit from socio-musical research that clarifies the nature of the complex interactions between social and musical phenomena.  For instance, mass media, tradition, change, social stratification, acculturation, social behaviour, social interaction, and politics are areas directly affecting (as well as being affected by) music, music-making and music learning.

 H. de Jager (1 974) states that we should be aware of both the internal and the external sides of music.  The internal side consists of the logic of musical structure and musical development.  The external side consists of that which sociologically makes sounds into "music", i.e., the collectively held convictions, ideas, beliefs, conceptions, values and norms which underlie and surround the sounds considered to be music at some time, in some place, by some social group.  He states that musical ideas and beliefs are related to other spheres of life such as religion, work and leisure, as well as to conceptions about morality, human dignity and utility.  In other words, "music" is part of a style of life, of a so-called cultural pattern.  The significance of this is that the transmission of any kind of music to other people - the socialization process - is partly dependent upon nonmusical ideas and conceptions.

 H. de Jager (:164-165) points out also that the teaching and learning of music are processes which happen both consciously and explicitly, and unconsciously and implicitly.  Much music socialization occurs implicitly because many beliefs, attitudes and ideas are taken for granted, so that hardly anybody realizes to which extent they are not "natural' but culture-bound.  He urges music educators to become aware of those non-musical, but influential aspects of their work and to take into account the fact that music is made, performed and listened to by human beings who are culturally conditioned as well as socially controlled in much of their behaviour.

Social Consciousness

 A starting point in analyzing music education from a socio-cultural perspective lies in the development of a critical consciousness of music in education, particularly as it relates to social and cultural production and reproduction.  One question fundamental to this analysis is - how does music education fit into the forming of social and cultural consciousness?

 Critical theory underlies this analysis of the formation of social consciousness by creating an awareness of the complexities of schooling generally, and by encouraging a consciousness towards knowledge and power relationships that inform and constitute dominant ideology and tradition.  Critical theory provides a basis from which it is possible to perceive the complex interactions that exist between the individual, school and society.  The particular notion of culture as the expression of human consciousness shaped by daily living (Doyle, 1989), as a lived consciousness shaped by daily living (Doyle, 1989), and as a lived and ongoing experience, provides the basis of this analysis.  This points to the view that schools are cultural and political spheres, actively engaged in the production of both cultural and societal norms, values, knowledge and language.

 Schools, therefore, play an important role as agents of social and cultural reproduction and production.  They are seen as cultural sites that embody conflicting values, histories, traditions and practices.  Indeed, they are an expression of the wider organization of society.  As Antonio Gramsci (1971) posits, hegemonic ideology is incorporated into human consciousness by the shaping of social and cultural practices, structures and beliefs through schooling and family, as well as other social and cultural institutions.  However, hegemony is never really complete because people are both the products and creators of their social world.  Hegemony becomes then the struggle and incorporation of people's consciousness.  Gramsci points to the necessity of the development of a critical consciousness of who people are as both historical products and makers of history.  This is to enable better understanding of their own experiences within a wider construct of social and cultural hegemonic ideologies.

 Like Gramsci, Paulo Friere (1973, 1985, 1987) expresses the belief in the power of the individual to come to a critical consciousness o his/her own existence.  One of the most important pedagogical tenets for Friere is the need for teachers to respect the consciousness and culture of their students, and to create the situation in which students can articulate their understanding of the world.  Paul Willis points also to the necessity of forming a critical consciousness in cultural production.  He argues (1981:49) that the starting point for an investigation of relationships between the individual and society should be the cultural sphere, in materials practices and productions, in historical contexts, and in the everyday span of existence and practical consciousness.

 Further to this, Michael Apple (1982b, 1983) and Henry Giroux (1 983a, 1983b, 1988) view the pedagogical value of resistance in the connections it makes between structure and human agency; and culture and the process of self-formation.  In this regard, resistance represents a dialectical notion of human agency that portrays domination as a process that is neither static, one-way, deterministic, nor complete.  In schooling, both teachers and students produce meaning and culture through their own resistance and through their own individual and collective consciousness.  Schools then are sites not only of domination, but are places where values, particular forms of knowledge and social relations can be taught as a means toward self and social empowerment.

Music Education and Social Consciousness

 As part of a more extensive study (Rose, 1990), fifteen music educators were interviewed in light of notions extracted from critical theory relating to cultural production, reproduction and hegemony.  Individual perceptions, attitudes and beliefs were obtained regarding culture, music in culture, music in education and music teacher education.  An in-depth comparative analysis of four of these educators was completed which considered the impact of backgrounds, various societal influences and music curricula on their present ideals and practices.  The following discussion stems from information gathered in this study that relates particularly to the analysis and development of social consciousness within music education.

 Culture is a lived experience, one that is ever-changing.  Through ongoing human and societal interactions culture continues to be produced.  As far as social and cultural consciousness is concerned, the challenge is to produce a culture that is somehow changed, developed and/or improved.  From the point of view of forming social consciousness, people create meanings as they interact in society.  Throughout everyday living the productive element of culture allows for the changing nature of culture, and it acknowledges the role of the individual and groups of people in the creation and growth of culture.  Culture is indeed shaped by people - people are makers of their own culture as well as receivers of culture.  People want to be active makers of music, and not just passive recipients of a handed-down culture and 'established' musical traditions.

 Some music educators claim that, as a society, we must recognize the fact that we have to do something structurally with our culture (as both content and process) to ensure it is "passed on", and not assume it will be "passed on" through osmosis.  Most educators felt that a conscious decision regarding both the preservation and reproduction of culture, as well as the production of culture, has to be made.  They felt this decision then has to be backed up with conscious support and commitment from people generally perceived to be in "authority" (e.g., government, parents, teachers, administrators and school board executives).  This is particularly important given people's general perception of the underlying power these groups have in determining the existence and maintenance of school music programs.  Hence there exists the necessity to develop a social consciousness within these individuals and institutions as to the potential role of music education in the process of cultural reproduction and production.  As Giroux (1983a) claims, it is only through knowledge and self-awareness that informed decisions can be made.  This points to the need for critical educators to "know" their students, and to analyze dominant relations in schools in terms of their origin, how they are sustained, and how the students are affected by them.  Educators must strive to understand how the dominant culture at all levels of schooling functions to legitimate, or disconfirm, the cultural experiences of students of subordinate cultures.

 Given the inherent nature of music, that it is a lived expression of culture, the possibilities for music in forming social and cultural consciousness are endless.  As was expressed by some educators, music is always there as a reflection of what we are doing.  It keeps us conscious of our culture and who we are.  Through active participation in various musical experiences - listening, playing, performing, creating, composing and analyzing - music in education can provide an invaluable site for not only social and cultural interaction, but also the necessary production of musical culture.  Music education can provide opportunities to soften social barriers and inequalities by experiencing music as a common language and a common expression.

 Research reveals, however, that music in education as it presently exists, serves mainly in the reproduction of both social and cultural inequalities (Rose, 1990).  This idea points directly to Bowles and Gintis' (1976) theory of correspondence in social reproduction, as well as to Bourdieu and Passeron's (1977) theory of cultural reproduction.  They claim that schooling prepares and equips students with "proper" knowledge, values, attitudes and behaviours (i.e., cultural capital) suitable for the labour force and the maintenance of society's class structures.  Through the transmission of a particular cultural tradition in the educational system, e.g., Western European classical music, other cultures are consciously excluded from music in education.  Hence, certain individuals and groups are ignored within a culture and society, and an unconscious acceptance of a culture that may be irrelevant and foreign to these individuals and groups is fostered.  This fact needs to be remembered as we work towards social consciousness and transformation.

 In the language of Basil Bernstein (1977), music education appears to have erected both internal and external boundaries.  Music education has classified a particular school knowledge suitable for music in education.  However, there exist potential "cracks!' in these boundaries as music educators reflect and transmit varying cultural traditions.  These contradictions indicate a compromise, of sorts, between the 'set" school knowledge and one's own knowledge and experience.  Hence, there exist possibilities for contestation, struggle and transformation.  It becomes important then to look to these "cracks" as possible sites for the forming of a social consciousness.  We need to look into the formation of these boundaries and search for answers to questions such as:  Why are we teaching a particular culture and neglecting another?  Who is included in, and excluded from, music in education?

 Research reveals also that few schools see themselves in the business  of recreating or transforming society.  Music education does not presently participate in the building of a new social order (Rose, 1990).  In order to produce and transform, however, it is necessary to have formed a social consciousness.  Components necessary for the development of social consciousness would include self-reflection, creativity, analysis and possibly resistance.  Without these notions existing in lived and conscious ideals and practices within music education, the possibilities for the formation of a social  consciousness are restricted.  Also, without a change in understanding and consciousness from seeing that it is encapsulated in its own ideological position, music education will continue to serve an increasingly less important and relevant function in education, and in society as a lived expression of music in culture.

 Despite the expressed value and implied importance of an indigenous culture, reality and actual practice do not necessarily reflect the vision (Rose, 1990).  This, in part, comes from the fact that educators expressing this value are not always those in policy and curriculum-making positions.  Hence, there exists a need to realize more fully the place of music in a given society, and to realize the power that music, particularly as it exists in the educational system, has to affirm or disaffirm a culture.  This fact alone would call for the formation of a critical consciousness of culture in general, and music education in particular.

 It is interesting to note that, despite the fact that individual music educators realize that music can be used to dominate and manipulate aspects of culture, they are very often party to the use of materials and practices that are themselves expressive of a dominant culture, and possibly manipulation.  This is noted clearly in the practice of passing on musical traditions which are not necessarily an obvious value for students involved.  The problem is compounded by the fact that the practised tradition is sometimes not even valued by the teacher.  Very often these actions can and do, in fact, separate the music from the backgrounds or culture of students.

 Part of any information of a transformative social consciousness necessitates teachers and administrators accepting the inherent value of not only a student culture, but also a musical culture.  Music educators have the opportunity to be creative and inventive in the ways they use and blend various musical traditions and practices.  This points to the need to examine one's inherited musical culture with the hope of understanding its inherent value, and to question how it reflects participants' needs and cultures.  Such an examination aids the development of a critical pedagogy, one that enables growth, change and transformation.

 In conclusion, music education can and does play a very important role in the shaping of social consciousness.  This fact necessitates the development of individual awareness of one's role in this process, as well as the development of a critical consciousness within music education - a consciousness that recognizes and addresses the power and potential of music in education as a reproducer and producer of culture.

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