The goal of social studies education has traditionally been to educate the young to be effective citizens, often referred to as citizenship education (Allen & McEwin, 1983; Banks & Clegg, 1990; Barr, Barth & Shermis, 1978; Engle & Ochoa, 1988; Jarolimek, 1984; Nelson, 1992; Shaver, 1992).  The nature of citizenship education as claimed by Shaver (1992) is the transmitting of values and encouraging the development of competencies in decision making.  This citizenship transmission is conducted because our society is dependent upon citizenship participation.  For the purpose of this paper citizenship participation and social participation are regarded as interchangeable.

 Students today face a myriad of social, political and personal problems which demand responses on a daily basis.  Therefore, students must be taught the most effective ways to deal with these problems.  Allen and McEwin (1983) noted that dealing with a plethora of practical problems assists students to cope with real life situations and thus prepares them as future citizens.  These practical learning experiences are best provided through direct social action in the local community (social participation).  Engle and Ochoa (1988) claimed that social participation will assist students to develop a greater sense of personal, social and political efficacy.  Social participation is a strategy that has implications for the development of the effective citizen and should be an integral part of our intermediate/senior high school social studies curriculum.  This age group is targeted for social participation because, as Zachow and Cartier (1988) have indicated, adolescents are forming a coherent conception of their role in society.  Research has found a statistically significant positive relationship between social action projects involving adolescents and later political activities (Hanks, 1981; Holland & Andre, 1987; Lindsay, 1984; Milbarth & Coel, 1979).  Therefore social participation must include activities which enhance critical thinking, problem solving and decision making skills.

 To be effective, social participation projects must have specific guidelines.  The following guidelines, based on the work of Banks and Gregg (1990), are considered useful in developing and implementing social action projects:
 

1. Social action projects should be meaningful experiences providing opportunities for students to address relevant social, personnel and political concerns.

2. The primary goal of social action projects should be to provide experiences for the students whereby they can attain a sense of political effectiveness and not just serve the community.

3. Students should participate in social activities only after they have studied the related issues, analyzed and clarified their values regarding involvement, identified the possible consequences of the action and expressed a willingness to accept those consequences.

4. The experiences and age of the students should be considered when action projects are planned and implemented.

5. Full cooperation of students, teachers, school administrators and relevant community agencies is necessary before embarking on a social action project.

6. School facilities should be flexible allowing for active participation in the local community.

7. No individual student should be required to participate in a project that he or she feels is contrary to his or her values or beliefs.

8. Social action projects in the social studies program should be nonpartism.  Although groups of students may decide to highlight a particular issue, students with other beliefs and goals should have the option to plan parallel projects to support their beliefs.

 The following are examples of potential Social Participation Projects:
 

1. Students helping people in the community (i.e., elderly)

2. Student participation in the community clean-up day

3. Students attending and participating where necessary in court of law sessions, community town/city council meetings, government house meetings, constitutional debates, etc.

4. Long term projects - student involvement with senior citizens, hospitals, red cross and charitable organizations

5. Short term projects - develop and participate in specific projects-walk-a-thons for specific charitable organizations.

6. Student development of a campaign leaflet to support a major political issue in the community (removal of historical buildings, waste disposal, etc.)

7. Sponsor activities to promote human rights.

8. Student participation in environmental protection programs.

 To facilitate and implement social participation a supportive stimulating 
environment which encourages open communication is essential.  At the heart of such a classroom is a reflective teaching approach.  Engle and Ochoa (1988) proposed the following model that could be adopted to highlight discussion of societal issues, which in turn stimulates social participation:
 

 Identify and define the problem
 The use of probing questions
 Identifying value assumptions
 Identifying alternatives and predicting consequences
 Reaching and justifying a decision

 Social participation in itself is of little use.  Students must be given opportunities to follow up on projects and both teachers and students must be aware of the effectiveness of participating in a social action project.  The students' expressions of feelings, beliefs and attitudes about participation in the community must also be encouraged and openly discussed.  The teacher can use a variety of devices to assess students attitudes: students' log books, student interviews, class journals, anecdote records, attitudinal measures.  In reflective teaching students will learn the role of effective citizenry.  They will debate contemporary issues, seek dialogue and become activity involved in decision making processes.
 

 The 21st century is less than a decade away.  Social participation is the linchpin to assure that our future citizens become involved as decision makers.  Profitable outcomes of social participation in our intermediate/senior high social studies program can result in improvements in school community relations and a more effective school climate (Banks & Gregg, 1990; Barth & Shermis, 1979; Engle & Ochoa, 1988; Jarolimek, 1990; Shaver, 1990).  Also, our future citizens will be equipped with critical thinking skills that have been 'honed' on social participation projects and fine tuned in reflective classrooms.

 We can cross the Rubicon and make the call for social participation louder or we can play it safe, dealing out knowledge via lecture and textbooks to passive obedient students, the result of which will be a passive, acquiescent, uninformed, armchair citizenry waiting to meet the 21 st century.

 It is hoped that this discussion has stirred the readers imagination resulting in a social studies program that is vital and exciting, which is the way it should be.

 Allen, M., & McEwin, K. (1983).  Middle level social studies:  From theory to practice.   Columbus, Ohio: Middle Level Association.

 Banks, J., & Glegg, A. (1990) Teaching strategies for the social studies: Inquiry, valuing, and decision-making.  New York: Longman.

 Barr, R., Barth, J., & Shermis, S. (1978).  The Nature of the social studies.  Palm Springs, CA: ETC Publications.

 Barth, J., & Shermis, S. (1979) Defining social problems.  Theory and practice in social education, 7, 2-19.

 Engle, S., & Ochoa, A. (I988).  Education for democratic citizenship: Decision making in the social studies.  New York:  Teachers College Press.

 Hanks, M. (1981).  Youth, voluntary associations and political socialization.  Social Forces, 60, 212-224.

 Holland, A., & Andre, T. (1987).  Participation in extracurricular activities in secondary school.  Review of Educational Research, 57, 437-467.

 Jarollmek, J. (1990).  Social studies in the elementary grades.  New York: Macmillan.

 Linsay, P. (1984).  High school size, participation in activities, and youth social participation: Some enduring effects of schooling. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 6, 72-82.

 Milbrath, W., & Goel, M. (1977).  Political participation:  How and why people get involved in politics.  Chicago:  Rand McNally.

 Nelson, M. (1992).  Children and social studies.  New York:  Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

 Shaver, J. (1992).  Rationales for issues-centered social studies education.  The Social Studies. 83, 95-99.
 Shaver, J. (1987).  Implications from research: What should be taught in social studies?  In V. Richardson-Koehler (Ed.), Educator's handbook:  A research perspective (pp. 112-138).  New York: Longman. 

 Zachow, K. & Cartier, G. (1987).  What are transients concerned about?  Middle School Journal, 18, 29-34.