This paper draws upon several years of our observations and experiences as teachers in Newfoundland schools and communities.  In it we describe many ways some schools in this province have attempted to build positive family, community and school relations by involving parents in several school related activities.  In doing so, we briefly (1) highlight the importance of the notion of producing local knowledge and local theories to educational change processes, (2) review literature on the benefit of parental and community involvement in education, (3) list 50 ways parents can help schools, (4) reflect on what local education reform means to parents and why parents believe that the school reform initiated by school boards will affect the culture of their schools in negative ways, and (5) suggest what needs to be done to avoid possible negative impact of school restructuring on the culture of the school.
 

 Many writers recognize the importance of local knowledge and local  theorizing.  This form of knowledge and theorizing helps people to enhance their well-being in the concrete context in which they work and live.  In the context of school-family-community relation, local knowledge and theories produced by teachers, parents, student and others help them to focus on the concrete relationship on which their daily lives depend (Geertz, 1983; Schibeci & Grundy, 1987; Tripp, 1987; Smyth, 1989).

 Much information exists on the complex nature of the classroom in which teachers work with their students.  Similarly, there is a dearth of literature on why and how parents want to get involved in their children's education in school, and how and why the school should encourage parents to get involved with their children's school.

 There exist two sets of debates on the complexity of the classroom and on the partnership among schools, family and community.  One discourse is "objective" and the other is "subjective".  Both are important to fully understand the above relationships.  The difference between the two debates, however, is that the objective discourse is generally perceived as a scientific discourse - meaning research based debates.  In contrast, the discussions of the real classroom realities and the real relationship which the partnership among school, family and community builds upon makes different assumptions.  These discourses maintain that the reflective observations of many stakeholders (students, parents, grandparents, principal, counsellors, members of the business communities, church people, politicians and other school personnel) and the intuitions of experienced teachers are the major considerations for understanding the complex classroom relationship and family-school-community relationships.

 In the context of the education change process, the debate of the real implies that sharing of local knowledge with others and reflecting on it critically is a necessary and useful practice, because it helps fine-tune the objective knowledge often used to initiate education reform.  In this way, it is believed, using local knowledge will make education reform more effective and relevant in a given concrete community-school- family context.
 

 We make no attempt to review the massive literature in this area. Suffice it to mention that there is both a need and a demand for increased parental and community involvement in public education.  While in the past evident mainly in private schools, parental involvement and the involvement of the community is growing in public education as well.  Henderson (1981, 1987, 1994) has reviewed a total of 125 research studies which examine evidence regarding the effect of parental involvement on student academic achievement and the performance of schools.  Schools that work well with families show improved morale, produce higher ratings of teachers by parents, and have better reputations in the community (Henderson, 1994).

 Over the past thirty years many research studies have focussed on the recognition given to the crucial role parents play and have put emphasis on the rights and responsibilities of parents to influence educational programs (Henderson & Beria, 1994; Olmstead & Rubin, 1983).  One of the most important findings which the research overwhelmingly indicates is:
 

 When parents show a strong interest in their children's schooling, they promote the development of attitudes that are key to achievement, attitudes that are more a product of how the family interacts than of its social class or income.  If schools treat parents as powerless or unimportant, or if they discourage parents from taking an interest, they promote the development of attitudes in parents, and consequently their children, that inhibit achievement (Henderson, 1981, p. 3).

 Epstein (1983) reports that when teachers were committed to increasing parent involvement, the parents "...felt that they [the parents] should help their children at home; ....understood more about what their child was being taught in school; ....were more positive about the teacher's interpersonal skills, and rated the teacher higher in overall teaching ability..." This change in parents' perceptions is true even after socioeconomic status and student ability are taken into account (Epstein, 1983; Eagle, 1989).  Furthermore, if increased parental involvement creates the perception that the school is more effective, it is likely that student achievement will increase (Caplan, Choy, & Whitmore, 1992).

 Henderson (1987) points out seven key research facts we should know, based on some of the most important research findings about parent involvement.  These are:

1. The family provides the child's primary educational environment.

2. Involving parents in their children's formal education improves student achievement.

3. Parent involvement is most effective when it is comprehensive, long-lasting, and well-planned.

4. The benefits are not confined to early childhood or the elementary level; there are strong effects from involving parents continuously throughout high school.

5. Involving parents in their own children's education at home is not enough. To ensure the quality of schools as institutions serving the community; parents must be involved at all levels in the school.

6. Children from low-income and minority families have the most to gain when schools involve parents.  Parents do not have to be well-educated to help.

7. We cannot look at the school and home in isolation from one another; we must see how they interconnect with each other and with the world at large.

 It should be kept in mind that not all types of parental involvement lead to improved performance.  As Epstein and Connors (1992) state:  "Research is needed that provides information on the effects of specific practices so that schools can more purposely choose practices to help them obtain specific benefits from their involvements in school and family connections" (p. 13). Henderson (1988) states, "...parents involvement works better when parents are given a variety of roles to play" (p. 150) and "For the wheel to turn, parents must play all the roles.  The conclusion of this series of studies is that the better planned, the more comprehensive, and the longer lasting the parent involvement, the more effective the schools in the community become" (p. 151).  Becher (1984) agrees that "all forms of parent involvement strategies seems to be useful.  However, those ...that offer more types of roles for parents to play, and occur over an extended period of time appear to be more effective" (p. 18).

 Henderson and Epstein have developed several models of classification of parental involvement.  Henderson (1987) mentions three, namely (1) improving the parent-child relationship in the context of the family; (2) integrating parents into school programs; and, (3) building strong relationships between school, family, and the larger community.  Epstein (1994) notes six types of parent involvement, namely (i) school help for families in the area of basic family responsibilities; (ii) school-home communication (e.g. basic obligations of schools for communication from school to home); (iii) family help for schools (involvement of parents to assist teacher); (iv) involvement in learning activities at home (homework, etc.); (v) involvement in governance, decision making, and advocacy (school improvement or school site councils, etc.); and, (vi) collaboration and exchanges with the community (support services, etc.).
 

 The parents can help schools and students in following the 50 ways:

Come to School to Assist

1. Share information with a student or class about a hobby.

2. Share information with a student or a class about a career.

3. Share information with students about a country you visited or lived in.

4. Tutor one or a small group of students in reading, math, or other area.

5. Help coach an athletic team.

6. Help check a student's written work.

7. Help put out a school or classroom newsletter (can also be done at home).

8. Help sew or paint a display.

9. Help build something (such as a loft in a classroom or new playground).

10. Help students work on a final exhibition or project (can also be done at home or workplace).

11. Help answer the schools' phone.

12. Help plan a new playground for the school.

13. Help plan a theme-based presentation for students.

14. Help present a theme-based program for students.

15. Demonstrate cooking from a particular country or culture to students.

16. Share a particular expertise with faculty (such as use of computers, dealing with disruptive students).

17. Help students plan and build an outdoor garden or other project to beautify the outside of the school.

18. Help coach students competing in an academic competition (such as  Odyssey of the Mind, Future Problem Solving, Math Masters).

19. Help bring senior citizens to school to watch a student production.

20. Help set up an internship or apprenticeship for a student at your business, organization, or agency.

21. Host a one-day 'shadow study' for one or a small group of students about  your career in business or some other organization.

22. Go on a local field trip with a teacher and a group of students.

23. Go on an extended (3-5 day) cross-country field trip with a teacher &  students.

24. Contact a particular local business or organization regarding possible  cooperation.

25. Help to create a natural area outside the building where students can learn.

26. Serve on the school-wide site council.

27. Serve on a school committee that reports to the site council.

28. Serve on a district committee representing the school.

29. Serve as an officer in the school's PTA.

30. Help organize a parent organization for the school.

31. Help design a parent and or student survey for the school.

32. Help conduct and or tabulate results of a parent survey regarding the school.

33. Serve as a member of a 'telephone tree' to distribute information quickly.

34. Write a letter to legislators about the school.

35. Write a letter to school board members about the school.

36. Go to a school board meeting to advocate for the school.

37. Go to another school to provide information about this school.

38. Help design a brochure or booklet about the school.

39. Help translate information from the school into a language other than English.

40. Help translate at a parent-teacher conference for people who don't speak English well.

41. Provide transportation to a parent-teacher conference for a parent who needs a ride.

42. Write an article for publication in a magazine about the school's activities.

43. Help arrange for a political leader (mayor, city council, state representative, member of Congress) to visit the school.

44. Help write a proposal that would bring new resources to the school.

45. Donate materials to the school.

46. Arrange for a business or other organization to donate materials to the school.

47. Help with a fundraiser for the school.

48. Help teach a class for parents on ways they can be stronger parents.

49. Help produce a videotape for parents on ways they can be more effective parents.

50. Help write, publish, and distribute a list of parenting tips.

 From personal observations and based on local knowledge we provide examples of programs offered in some urban schools in this province.  Many of these programs have been quite successful in connecting schools, families and communities.
 

 Time constraints make it difficult for teachers and staff to complete many clerical tasks demanded in the delivery of programs.  Community volunteers provide supports to allow staff the time to focus on the academic needs of children.

• Photocopying service
• Laminating
• Typing
• Answering phones - this would occur prior to school, lunchtime or after school hours
• Mail - stuff envelopes or prepare mail to go home to parents
• Phone Tree - starts a chain of home notification in the case of a major event or emergency
• School\enhancement - this incorporates tasks such as decorating bulletin boards, creating signs and painting murals

 Fundraising efforts have become an integral part of the school  organization.  The financial limitations placed on schools and the services they are able to provide dictate the necessity for community involvement in terms of providing financial assistance and supports to the school.  The level of support provided determines the extent to which the school can effectively provide programs and initiatives to enhance the educational environment within our schools.  Some schools conduct many activities throughout the year while others direct their focus and energy to one or two larger activities.  There are a number of suggestions and ideas for community and school participation that have proven to be effective means of conducting fundraising efforts.

• Community and/or Family Fun Bingo
• Card parties
• Bottle drives
• Chocolate/bar sales
• Gift wrap sales
• Raffle tickets
• Dances
• Walk-a-thon/3 mile run
• Lap-a-thon - many schools focus on this activity as a major fundraiser for the year
• Collection of grocery tapes - The major grocery chains reimburse $1.00 per every $500.00 proof of purchase
• Pizza day - this provides a treat to the children and also provides extra revenue to the school

 The integration of students at varying academic levels, as well as the methods by which curriculum must be delivered, have changed during the past several years.  This makes it difficult for teachers to give the amount of individual instructional time students need.  To enhance educational opportunities, volunteers support the programs in a variety of ways.

• Classroom helpers - Volunteers, individually or in small groups, complete reading activities, assist with learning centers, art classes, or any tasks  required by teachers.

• Resource centre - The role of "librarian" is assumed by the volunteers to allow the resource teacher time to collaborate with other teachers and team teach units.

• Oral testing - Volunteers are trained to oral test and scribe for students who  require this service.

• Computer lab - Volunteers, who have basic knowledge of computer use, work with teachers to monitor and trouble shoot when students experience  difficulties.

• Field trips - Extra supervision is required for functions that occur off school  grounds.

 Many extra-curricular activities would not be implemented in schools without the support of parents.  School spirit is an important aspect of the everyday running of a school.  It builds a sense of ownership and commitment to the goals and overall creation of a positive environment for the school.  The following list provides ideas and suggestions by which parents can be involved in building school spirit.

• Reading Club - Parents, care givers, etc... are invited to do fun reading activities with students.
• Drama club - Parents are involved with direction, set, design, costume design, etc... for school performances.
• Newspaper Club
• Chess Club
• Computer Club
• Writer's Club
• Art Club
• Intramural Groups
• Sports teams/Aerobics
• Cheerleaders
• Beavers/Scouts/Cubs/Brownies/Girl Guides etc.

 Many schools offer various supports to students so that they can become more involved in school activities.  Due to restrictions placed on parents in today's society, some students' basic needs are not being met in the home environment.  Schools have taken the initiative to provide supports so that these students reach their potential.  These include school wide programs and specific initiatives to ensure that all students have the opportunity to learn in a positive and productive environment.

• Breakfast Program:  Schools have recognized that many children are coming to school not properly nourished and felt it was affecting their progress in school.  Breakfast programs can be implemented to address hunger and eating disorders.  They may involve teachers and parents volunteers.

• School Lunch Program:  Lunch programs are offered to students in many schools.  The confidentiality of these programs allow high risk students to have lunch without being stigmatized.  It allows students to increase their self-concepts.

• Kiss and Ride:  Parents are encouraged to drop their children off at a  designated place.  Volunteers direct the flow of traffic so that students may  enter school safely.

• Transportation:  Schools provide transportation to students who normally go home on the school bus so they can participate in after school activities.

• Parent -Teacher Socials:  These allow parents and teachers to interact in a non-threatening, social environment.

 Parenting is the most important job given to individuals in today's society.  Parents face many complex issues each day.  Many parents are lacking appropriate skills to help them face these challenges.  Schools have recognized this need and have undertaken the initiative to offer services to parents, such as the ones listed below.  Parents become more confident in taking an active role and providing a commitment to the education process.

• Educational and parental skills improving programs

• Computer classes for parents

• Parent Career Night - offers an opportunity for parents to avail of information on careers

• Parent resource room with literature for parents - provides an informal setting whereby, parents may view and discuss educational literature and current initiatives
• Drug awareness programs for parents - provides information and tips  parents should be aware of in understanding children and the use of drugs

• Literacy programs delivered to high risk parents of pre-schoolers - prepares parents on procedures to prepare children for the commencement of school

 What does education reform mean to parents, students, and communities in this province?  How does it affect them?  We reflect on these questions and provide an analysis of the education reform scene in this province as it relates to parental involvement in schools.  We have already described in this paper how parents are involved in some schools in this province.  But in addition to this information, we looked at the comments made by parents and students about education reform in the local newspapers, mainly The Telegram, in the last several months.

 We also listened to comments parents made during school council and town hall meetings.  It is our impression that many parents perceive that the current plans adopted by school boards in this province to restructure schools will negatively affect the school culture, which in turn will have an adverse impact on students and on school-family-community relations.  We start with a brief description of education reform in this province, (Newfoundland, 1992).

 Historically schools in Newfoundland and Labrador had been organized on religious denominational lines and were funded by the government.  This has now changed.  It is an historic change.  Starting in September 1998, there was no publically funded denominational school system in this province.  This change has taken place against the will of many parents who cherished the traditional denominational school system in this province.  As a result of this, efforts are being made to establish private denominational schools in this province.

 Furthermore, the provincial government and school boards wanted to rationalize the educational system as well.  This has led to the policy of downsizing.  This in turn, has triggered school and program closure, as well as cuts in teaching positions in many parts of the province.  Also, school boards have implemented a new neighborhood attendance zone policy.  For this purpose new neighborhood boundaries were created by using GIS computer program.

 Many parents consistently protested against this restructuring plan for their neighborhood schools for many reasons.  Inspite of these protests, the school boards have restructured the neighborhood school boundaries, effective September 1999.

 To be sure, school reform is nothing new in this province and elsewhere in the world.  The school system everywhere has undergone numerous changes in policy and procedure in the past two centuries.  It is true that although the basic structure of education has changed very little, reforms have had an influence on the direction of education in North America, including in this province.  For example, historically schools have seen the introduction of the lesson plan, learning objectives, and student goal setting.  At present, many school reforms are driven by the idea that students need to be more competitive.  The schools must prepare all students to be productive in the world market place.  Universities want applicants who do not lack skills and competencies needed to succeed in a tough program of study.  Business leaders are concerned about the future of the workforce in a highly competitive global economy.  Students are expected to have a good understanding of the core academic subjects.  They must also be able to solve problems, make decisions, and be prepared for responsible global citizenship.  Students are expected to prepare for productive employment in our province's and nation's modern economy.

 There is no doubt that parents realize that education reform is needed and that it will affect parents and their children in many ways.  It will depend on the type of changes that are made in their distinct, neighborhood and communities.  If reform is related to the subject area, it would mean that their children may be introduced to new content, materials, standards, and ways of learning and teaching.  These changes are usually made as a result of a particular education goal or objective adopted by their schools or the school board.  On the other hand, if reform is related to the administrative process, they and their children may not even notice it.  If a decision is made to close their schools, it will affect their communities in a fundamental way.

 Finally, many parents have noted that school reform in this province may also affect school-family-community relationship.  As mentioned earlier, a sizeable number of parents in this province believe that restructuring plan adopted by school boards, and endorsed by the provincial government, will negatively affect the culture of their schools.  In their views, and we are paraphrasing here, schools develop pervasive cultures which include shared attitudes and beliefs about the families of children who attend them.  These beliefs, in turn, shape the school's patterns of interaction with families and children.  Parents realize that it takes a long and persistent effort to build school-family relationship.  It is a long term process.  The current school restructuring plan adopted by school boards requires moving of hundreds of students from one school to another and from one neighborhood to another within a very short period of time.  It will also require new bussing arrangements.  Parents see moving their children from one school to another as having negative impact on them - academically, socially and culturally.  They see the whole process as demoralizing for themselves as well for many reasons.

 They feel that, as parents, they have worked hard to establish friendly working relationship among themselves and school personnel.  This warm relationship made it possible, according to them, to equip their schools with needed resources and programs.  Most of these things, if not all, will be lost during the fast-paced school restructuring process.

 Also, as mentioned earlier, parents see their involvement in schools as a cultural work through which they have been able to build a particular school culture to their liking and the liking of their children and school personnel.  Now they perceive that school restructuring, which they oppose, will negatively affect the school culture, which in turn will affect students achievement, aspiration and expectation - occupational and educational.  They also believe that many other aspects of school restructuring, for example crowed classrooms, will adversely impact their children's social relations, self-esteem and well-being.

 To conclude, we believe it is necessary to monitor the impact of school reform on the culture of the school.  If the impact is going to be negative, as so many parents believe, the challenge is to ask ourselves what can families, schools and communities learn from this experience?  What would it take to rebuild a new form of positive school culture?  How would parents, children and school personnel be motivated to re-establish friendly and warm relationships? Hope and despair are nothing but two sides of the same coin.  We must build on the hope side, taking into account the despair side.

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