The above diagram
shows the evolutionary and morphological relationships among
four taxa A, B, C, & D:
A & B
are most similar phenetically: the morphological difference
measured between them on the horizontal axis is smallest.
B & C are most similar patristically:
the amount of change that
separate them as measured along the branches of the tree is
smallest.
C & D are most closely
related cladistically: of the three branch points in the
tree, they have a more recent common ancestor (MRCA)
than any other pair in the tree.
By analogy with an actual tree, A & B are twig tips that are closest together on the outside of a tree ("as the crow flies"), despite being on different branches. B & C are closest together "as the ant runs". C & D are on the same stem, despite the ends being very far apart.
Substituting real
biological examples for the hypothetical taxa: lizards and crocodiles have a superficial phenetic similarity due to their
elongate, scaly bodies and four-footed stance. However, it has
long been recognized that crocodiles are more closely related to
dinosaurs and birds as Archosauria, which accounts for a
number of shared characteristics,e.g., crocs, birds, and
(presumably) dinosaurs have four-chambered hearts.
Within this group, crocodiles
and dinosaurs have
undergone relatively little morphological change since the
Mesozoic, which results in their patristic
similarity (e.g., crocodilians and dinosaurs are scaly,
terrestrial,
diapsid tetrapods). Among Archosauria, the two orders of dinosaurs and the many orders of
birds have the closest cladistic relationship (with an MRCA
sometime in the Cretaceous period), but because of
adaptations associated with the evolution of flight, birds are
morphologically distinctive.
It should be
appreciated that concepts of morphological similarity and change
are rather subjective. Morphological similarity depends on
features chosen: crocodile and lizards limbs are quite
different, more so that the differences between the latter and
the remnants of snake limbs. Limb structures are also quite
different between the four-legged Saurischian (lizard-hipped)
and two-legged Ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaur orders, and
the latter are only superficially similar to that of actual
birds. Subjectivity of perceptions of similarity are
well-illustrated in the film "Jurassic Park:"
dinosaurs are depicted so as to resemble living birds, rather
than as distinctive terrestrial megafauna in their own right.
And again, the recent discovery that many dinosaur species have
feathers gives the impression that they are bird-like, rather
than that birds are dinosaur-like, because of our long
association of feather exclusively with birds.