Cracking the Genetic Code
The Central Dogma: DNA makes RNA
makes protein
After 1953: DNA somehow "codes" for proteins
Proteins are made on ribosomes , which contain
long-lived (stable) & short-lived
(labile) RNA
Deciphering
the
code
Can't
be 1- or 2-letter code:
1
letter 4 amino acids only; 2
letters 4 x 4 = 16 only
20 amino acids require a minimum 3-letter triplet code
4 x 4 x 4 = 64,
is there redundancy? (hmmm ....)
Can't
overlap: neighbors aren't constrained
point
mutations affect only single amino acids
Can't
be direct DNA protein:
not
chemically compatible (H-bonds
vs. covalent bonds)
in
eukaryotes, DNA & protein are physically separated
Adaptor Hypothesis (Crick 1957)
some
molecule must serve as intermediary
Messenger RNA hypothesis (Jacob & Monod 1961)
rRNA is too stable; "other RNA" is labile
(transient)
"other
RNA" acts as messenger: mRNA is the "blueprint"
rRNA is the "workshop"
Experiments with RNA
homopolymers (Nirenberg 1961)
cell-free in vitro protein
synthesis:
polynucleotide phosphorylase
polymerizes rNDP monomers into RNA
rNDP
+ rNDP +
... + rNDP
<=> 3'-rNM-rNM-...-rNMP-5' + nPi
UUU UUU UUU poly-phenylalanine,
therefore UUU codes phe
AAA AAA AAA
poly-lysine
AAA codes lys
CCC CCC CCC
poly-proline
CCC codes pro
GGG GGG GGG
poly-glycine
GGG codes gly
Experiments with RNA di-, tri-, & tetra-nucleotide
polymers (Khorana 1965)
(1) UG +
UG + UG + UG
UGU-GUG-UGU-GUG
cysteine + valine + cysteine + valine
+ . . . . etc
(2)
UGG + UGG + UGG + UGG UGG-UGG-UGG
or
GGU-GGU-GGU or
GUG-GUG-GUG
mixture
of poly-trypotophan,
poly-glycine, &
poly-valine
GUG
& valine occur & produced in both experiments
therefore,
GUG makes valine
(3)
UGGG UGGG UGGG UGGG
UGG - GUG - GGU - GGG
trp,
val,
gly in 1:1:2 ratio
Since
we know GUG
makes valine,
and
we know GGG makes glycine,
if GGU makes gly
as well (hmmm...),
Therefore,
UGG
makes trypotophan
&
maybe GGN
makes glycine:
code is "ambiguous" in 3rd position
and so on for all 64 triplets
The complete code was
deciphered by 1965 (Nobel prize 1968)
The
code is a logical relationship between DNA, RNA,
& protein
The
code precedes the biochemical understanding of
transcription & translation
[First
example of "Big Science" Biology: NIH organized
major effort through Nirenberg]
All text material ©2024 by Steven M. Carr