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The purpose of
this paper is to investigate the basis of Newfoundland humor from an
historical and cultural perspective to assess whether a claim to uniqueness is
justifiable, and, as well, to evaluate the impact of recent socio-political
movements on the future of Newfoundland
humor. All provinces and all peoples claim to possess some regional,
cultural or ethnic diversity as an important part of their identity
definition. In the 1980s and 1990s there was an increase in Canadian
regionalism, reflected in the strength of two new regional political parties
and the failures of two proposed constitutional accords to compromise
centralizing and de-centralizing tendencies. All provinces see
themselves as unique, and they may be, but one may be just a little more
so? It is the belief of Herbert Lench Pottle that:” ...the
peculiarities of the Newfoundland
character today have a logical, meaningful and indeed inevitable linkage with
all of Newfoundland’s
yesterdays” (Pottle, 1983: 10).
Though Newfoundland
was the first province visited by Europeans, it was the last permanently
settled and the last to enter Canada
in 1949. This province was always viewed as a colonial possession first
by the French, then by the British and now by the Canadians (this
relationship is certainly under question with the failure of the fish
stocks). “All the while our cousins on the continental mainland
were organizing themselves into communities, raising their families, choosing
their governments, we Newfoundlanders were battling for the primitive right
to settle at all – outlaws in fact on alien soil” (Pottle,
1954:11). From the very beginning, survival in Newfoundland
was a struggle: a struggle against temporality; a struggle against the
fishing admirals who came to exploit; a struggle against each other, in the
absence of law and order and during the winter months, and a struggle to find
food and firewood to maintain life. This unique and austere environment
became the setting for the evolution of Newfoundland humor.
Cyril Poole as well locates much of the Newfoundland character in an
adaptive response to the precarious weather: “Because we have not
been able linguistically to slay our enemies, fog and rain, sleet and snow,
we must each day go forth and do battle with them. And the battle has
moulded our character” (Poole, 1982: 43). For Richard Gwyn the Newfoundland character was
“forged ... out of hereditary and environment. Newfoundlanders are
proud and sentimental, tough and impractical.” They are a people
who “rejected the dynamism and tyranny of the Protestant ethic for a
humanism which placed people above things and the spiritual above the
material” (Gwyn, 1970: 62). James Overton as well feels that:
“It is a culture that has developed organically in isolation and it is
the environment (especially the sea) that has been one of the key forces
which has moulded the Newfoundland
character” (Overton, 1988: 11).
In
1994, on C.B.C’s Cross Country Check-up, Rex Murphy was in conversation
with an Editor of “The Globe and Mail,” when the latter
stated: “There is no doubt that Newfoundland has a distinct
culture.” Later in the same program a Mr. Parsons phoned in from Nova Scotia
to comment that ... “he left the fishery for education. He would
like to return. The issue is not just economic. There is a
cultural uniqueness here (Nfld)” (C.B.C., March 13, 1994).
The difference between Newfoundland
and the other Atlantic Provinces
also appears to be the basis of methodological decisions when conducting
Sociological Research: “...researchers sometimes divide Newfoundland from the
rest of Atlantic Canada...”
(Baer, Grabb and Johnston, 1993: 16).
Newfoundland is the
only province where the majority of the residents live on an island in the
middle of the Atlantic and combined with the
Labrador Peninsula are the eastern most
points in Canada.
Demographically, the province is the most religiously homogeneous (with the
exception of Quebec),
it has the lowest rate of persons speaking the two official languages, and
has the highest rate of births in Canada within its own province
(Hillier, 1991: 23, 22, and 27). The vast majority of the population
can
trace an ancestry to either the south of England or Ireland with
a smaller number of immigrants coming from Scotland (Mathews, Kearley, Dwyer
1982: 65) (see appendix 1). The uniqueness of the culture and its
strong ties with the past can be appreciated when one realizes that the
province has produced two editions of The Dictionary of Newfoundland
English. The first edition contains 624 pages of unique Newfoundland
expressions while the second edition adds to the first and presents 770 pages
of unique expressions (Story, Kirwin and Widdowson 1982, 1990). The
physical location, the uniform roots, the unique preservation of historical
language were all melded by the continuous austerity of the environment and
provided the setting for the evolution of Newfoundland humor:
The stage was bountifully
set where they could laugh with relish at themselves and with resonance at
one another.
The natural habitats of
these manifold forms of humor were such hives as one another’s homes,
merchant’s stores, stage heads, the squid - jigging ground, at
‘times’ (local suppers and sales), launching and hauling up
boats, mummering, lodges, lumber camps... It is not much of an
exaggeration to say that where two or three are gathered together, they are
likely as not to be swapping yarns. (Pottle 1983:13)
As Newfoundland and Labrador humor appears to have evolved from the
precarious conditions of the lives of the people, it would be considered
functional for survival. The removal of this adaptive mechanism posing
a threat to the stability of the people. The relationship between humor
and the conditions of ones existence is not peculiar to the people of Newfoundland and Labrador. Lawrence W. Levine reviews the book On
the Real Side and states:
“Humor allows us to
discuss virtually everything, no matter how taboo. Subjects like incest,
sexual performance, prejudice, class feeling, even intense anger toward those
on whom we are emotionally or materially dependent, can be expressed openly and
freely once they become part of humorous expression. This is
undoubtedly why many of those who have experienced the most consistent
oppression – blacks, Jews, and Irish – have such a
highly developed sense of humor. (Levine, New York Times, February 27, 1994:
3)
Though the cause of the oppression of the Newfoundlander and Labradorian can
be linked to the environment and economic uncertainty rather than the social
structure, the effect on the evolution of the humor is very similar.
This fact would be supported by the French philosopher Montesquieu (1689 -
1755) who Cyril Poole (1982) finds a source of inspiration:
“...the strength of
passions and the clarity of thought are largely determined by climate. . . .
cold air ‘constringes the extremities of the fibres’, while
’warm air relaxes and lengthens the extremities of the external fibres
of the body’....in cold climates people are more courageous, bolder,
less suspicious, less cunning, and more open and frank. ...our (Newfoundlanders)
spirits are set in motion only by such strong stimuli as ‘hunting,
travelling, war and wine.’ .... ‘the bravery of those in cold
climates has enabled them to maintain their liberties.’”
(Poole, 1982: 48-49)
Herbert Pottle reinforces this point when he acclaims:
“Traditionally, in the light of the adverse weather conditions of Newfoundland history,
humour has been both an individual and a collective means of enabling life to
be tolerable” (Pottle, 1982:14).
Though the second major source of humor (economic uncertainty) has improved,
relative to the province’s extremely humble beginnings, the source of
this humor has shifted from the local merchant to the political patronage of
governments:
This rather sudden
somersault of condition - the turnover of traditional initiative to political
handout – has not been lost on Newfoundland humor, compounded mostly of
satire, which has been enjoying a roaring trade, the politicians being both
suppliers and customers. (Pottle, 1982:15)
Though Pottle made this comment over two decades ago, its current validity is
still without question as we reflect on the recent successes of two of Newfoundland’s
comedy troupes. “This hour has 22 Minutes” was awarded The
Golden Gate Award for 1993 in San Francisco
which received participation from over 1200 entries from 51 countries.
This was the largest film festival in the world and their award was in the
Comedy Category. Also, “Codco” was awarded two Geminis awards for
1993: Best Writing of a Variety Program or Series and Best Performance
in a Comedy (C.B.C. Files, St.
John’s, NF).
Both groups tend to emphasize political or cultural incongruities or
combinations of both. These are only two of the more prominent comedy groups;
there are many others: Buddy Waissisname and the other fellows, Rex
Murphy, Ray Guy, Snook, Al Cluston, Joe Mullins, Ross Goldsworthy, and Mixed
Nuts – all performing throughout the province on different
occasions.
The
evolution of the humor on this tiny province can be attributed to a number of
factors, already mentioned; but another significant influence is the absence
of any significant censorship. As soon as a story hits the news, local
comedians are guaranteed to be spreading wit, usually by word of mouth, within
a matter of maybe hours and certainly days. Child abuse; homosexuality
discovered in public washrooms; the Bobbits; Waco, Texas
Immigration Irregularities; and anything else can be the subject of fresh
humor. This is usually prompted by: “Got either fresh
one?” or “Any new ones on the go?” or “I
haven’t heard a story in ages?” The latter is a reminder of
the oral tradition which was once dominant in the culture and is still
present. No subject is too sacred or according to Herbert Pottle:
“There seems to be no area of life too intimate for the advances of
repressed humor.” Pottle illustrates this point by recounting the
traditional story about the baby born with no ears and nobody wanted to
mention this point to the parents for fear of offending them until Levi (the
grandfather of the child) came to visit. Levi avoided all mention of
the babies ears but continued to comment on the child’s very fine eye
sight. At one point the mother said, “Why are you asking about
his eyes?”
“Well,” sputtered Levi, “his eyesight better be good
because, poor little crater, he’ll never be able to wear
glasses.” (Pottle, 1982:28)
The
reader might appreciate a ‘fresh one’: Clyde Wells had an
accident the other day; he was out for a walk and was hit by a fishing boat
(late night party, Churchill Falls, April 21, 1994, 2 a.m.).
There is no topic too sacred to be ridiculed through humor; however, some may
argue that they have lived on the island for a number of years and have not
experienced uncensored humor. If this be a retort, the speaker has
removed himself/herself from the inner catacombs of the humor tunnels.
Much of Newfoundland’s raw humor is potentially offensive, and if an
individual were to show the slightest signs of offense or dismay at a mild
linguistic nuance then they are removed from the list of those who would
other wise be entertained. The day-to-day interactions which form the
context for the advance of the wit are not intended to offend and hence, an
individual who responds adversely is immediately denied access:
It is quite safe to say
that when Newfoundlanders get into a huddle, a humorous story is much more
likely than not what brings them together and keeps them so... Their
common ground is so firm and so redoubtable that anyone who cannot share the
same premises feels like an outsider. (Pottle, 1982: 30)
Much of Newfoundland’s
humor is pointed at Newfoundlanders themselves, but they are also prepared to
turn a phrase at the expense of minorities, women, men, children, dogs, cats,
clergymen, businessmen and sometimes even politicians. But the teller
does not believe, nor wishes to convey, some deep social commentary and
certainly does not wish to be accused of some anti-democratic intention which
did not exist: “Unlike the poisoned barb of satire and the
killing poiny of wit, humor is healing. It is not only wholesome, but
recreative and rejuvenating” (Shalit, l987: 2). The Newfoundlander
does not believe that the Newfoundlander is stupid, blacks are inferior, Jews
are cheap, women are unequal to men or that all politicians are
dishonest. But they are aware of the existence of these stereotypes and
this notion becomes one of the bases of the humor. Always, the joke remains a
joke, whose raison d’etre is pure entertainment void of a significant
social commentary.
Robert Stebbins identifies four types of humor. These are consensus,
control, conflict, and comic relief (Stebbins, 1990: 47-49). The humor
of the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador should be classified as
consensus humor creating feelings of friendliness and good cheer, and comic
relief or release from a tense situation (See Pottle, above). Control
humor, intended to annoy; and conflict humor, an act of aggression have no
place within context of Newfoundland
wit.
This point is shared by Martin and Baksh who conducted an extensive empirical
study of Atlantic Canadian School Humor. They referred to Damico
(1980:133) who discovered through her sociometric study of adolescent class
clowns that they can release tensions within the classroom and increase a
sense of group cohesion among the students (Martin and Baksh
1995:14). They also referred to Hill (1988:20-24) who listed eight
functions of humor. Her sixth she classifies as “appeasement
function of humor” which makes light of an otherwise serious issue and
the seventh is a “coping mechanism” through which students share
their personal problems (Martin and Baksh 1995:19). Both of these
functions are related to the way humor is used in the province of Newfoundland
and Labrador.
It
is difficult to separate humor and culture. Woods (1983:114)
found that students used humor to test the water in developing their own
culture. Woods also found that joking forms a cultural bond between
teacher and student (Martin and Baksh 1995:24,21). In school and out of
school it appears as though sharing one’s sense of humor is sharing
one’s culture.
The
function and nature of Newfoundland
humor is not always clearly understood by those who are not completely
immersed in the culture of the province. There are occasional attacks
against which the province must fortify itself. These attacks come from
individuals who have never lived in Newfoundland and Labrador and encounter
the culture for the first time, or from individuals who did live in the
province and have lived ‘up along’ (1) for many years and feel
they must protect the province from the perceived dangers of traditional
stereotypes. The format which the latter expression approximates is a
hybrid combination of Newfoundland
roots with upper Canadian self-consciousness.
On November 10, 1993, a sports
reporter for the Gander Beacon presented an editorial which heavily
criticized a local entertainer. The comedian was speaking at the annual
Fireman’s Ball and the female reporter, originally from Nova Scotia, had only
spent a short time in Gander,
Newfoundland. She called
Mr. Ross Goldsworthy a racist and extremely irresponsible. Her article
was entitled: “appalled, dismayed and disgusted.” The
very next week the paper was inundated with letters to the editor in defense
of Mr. Goldsworthy, he received 30 to 40 phone calls at home and hundreds of
supporting comments on the streets of Gander.
There was not one note of support for the journalist, Angela MacIsaac.
A typical letter written in support of Mr. Goldsworthy was presented by Janet
Samson who said: “I know the jokes that were told and I know that
these jokes were made to poke fun at the naivety of Newfoundlanders.
After all, if we can’t laugh at ourselves, who can we laugh at.
Ms. MacIsaac if you didn’t get the joke, you should have asked for an
explanation before printing your so called commentary” (Gander Beacon,
November 10 and 17, 1993).
In
April, 1993, Mr. Harry Brown, a retired C.B.C. broadcaster, originally from Newfoundland, spoke on
C.B.C. television against “Snook” (Peter Soucy), a popular
commentator on the C.B.C. who performs in the guise of street local from St. John’s.
Mr. Browne said: “He perpetuates the stereotype. He tries
to spend five minutes of my time telling me how stupid I am. And
convincing any potential investors that his original assessment of Newfoundland was
correct. If he were black or female, he would be fired” (C.B.C.,
Here and Now, April, 1993).
On April 8, 1993, Rex Murphy
a commentator for C.B.C responded to Harry Browne’s remarks and
provided a caustic attack on Mr. Brown and full support for
“Snook”. “Snook” himself responded and reminded Mr.
Brown of the many comedians this province has produced in the past; in
“Snook’s” words: “come on Harry bye, lighten
up!” There were no commentaries in support of Mr. Brown (C.B.C.,
Here and Now, April, 1993).
Later in April, a Toronto
woman, Lillian Elaine, originally from Newfoundland,
aired her disgust with a Toronto
newspaper which ran an ad for a computer course to be taught in many
languages – one of which was Newfie. She felt it made her
embarrassed as there was no such language as Newfie. This prompted
C.B.C. to ask people on the streets of Newfoundland
what they thought of the term Newfie and the comments of Ms. Elaine. Of
the 27 people interviewed, four were against the term, 20 found no fault with
the term (many felt honored by the term) and three were against the term
because they preferred to be called Labradorians (C.B.C., Here and Now,
April, 1993).
These situations reflect the current clashes which are beginning to surface
as the definition of reality, historically enjoyed by Newfoundlanders, begins
to collide with the dominant definition of reality which is prevalent
throughout much of Canada.
These incidents reflect to a degree the Politically Correct definition of
acceptability, dominant in some circles of the non-Newfoundland Canadian
culture and its apparent antithesis which is more prevalent in Newfoundland.
According to Maclean’s . . .“a new, rapidly unfolding moral
order, it is considered unacceptable for a white person to be critical of
minority groups.... seemingly disparaging references to color, sex or sexual
preference be banned” (Maclean’s, May 27, 1991:40). Much of
the humor of the Province
of Newfoundland and Labrador, contains references to sex, sexual practises
and sometimes to racial groups; however, the brunt of most jokes is the
Newfoundlander. Is this acceptable? Especially when
“Ethnographic research is based on the premise that what becomes
defined as humor is subjective” (Martin and Baksh 1995:38).
At
the University of Pennsylvania, Dr. Murray Dolfman, a successful lawyer and
popular part time lecturer, was suspended for asking an Afro-American to read
twice a section from the 13th Amendment dealing with enslavement; the
students and administration felt the student was being singled out.
At
Harvard, a bitter controversy developed over the desires of gays and lesbians
to express their sexuality, and the rights of heterosexuals to express their
attitudes toward homosexuality.
At Stanford University, Rudy Fuentes, co-founder
of MeCha, a student multicultural organization, was intimidated, threatened
and encircled. He was called Politically Incorrect for not supporting
the faction of the organization which wished to become more militant over
multiculturalism.
At Penn State
University, Nancy
Stumhofer, fought to have a reputable painting of a naked woman removed from
the music room she was required to use. Her claim was that the painting
constituted harassment. The administration complied.
At
the University
of Washington, Seattle, body builder
Peter Schaub found himself in a bitter controversy when he decided to enrol
in Women’s Studies 200. He contradicted the instructors who he
found were promoting lesbianism and male hatred while teaching women how to
be sexually independent. At one point in the course, the belief that
families would better without males, was advanced. The dean promised to
give him credit for the course without completing the required assignments as
long as he removed himself from the class (Pack, ”Campus Culture
Wars”, 1993).
Professor Graydon Snyder, a 63 year old tenured professor at the Chicago
Theologian Seminary, has filed a lawsuit against his school’s
disciplinary board. He was placed on probation and required to undergo
psychological therapy for making a reference to the Talmud, the Jewish Book
of Laws, where it states that a man is not liable to ‘indemnify her for
indignity unless it was intentionally caused.’ In the theoretical
scenario, a man fell from a roof and accidentally inserted his penis (Globe
and Mail, March 1994).
These American incidents do not relate directly to the context of Newfoundland’s
outlandish humor. The two have never met on the same playing
field. Many Canadian academics feel that this movement has strongly
penetrated Canada,
with the zero tolerance movement sweeping Ontario (C.B.C., Morning Side, February 3,
1994). Harry Browne, Lillian Elaine, and Angela Maclssac may be
examples of others yet to come. James Overton states:
The assumption of a common
culture and character and the argument that this needs to be defended against
outside destructive forces has a number of political implications. The
search for and the embrace of Newfoundland culture in many places goes hand
in hand with a rejection of all that is held to be alien to the Newfoundland
essence.... it is this character that makes it difficult for Canadians
to accept politicians such as John Crosbie and Brian Peckford.... an
expression of the Newfoundland soul that is just a little too ethnic for
central Canadians to accept. (Overton, 1988: 14-15)
While the ”Zero tolerance” movement in Ontario has recently been satirized in
Saturday Night magazine, the reader is sometimes left to ponder on the degree
of exaggeration used for satirical purposes. Though fulfilling an
important criteria for good humor – reflection creates
apprehension (Frazer, ”Saturday Night”, April, 1994: 10 and 74).
While many fear that the Politically Correct movement may be a new form of
McCarthyism (MacLean’s, 1991: 45) or puritanism (MacLean’s, 1991:
41), it becomes obvious that society cannot exist for too long without some
form of control. The Temperance Society was established to protect
society from hedonistic, demonic urges. Piloted primarily by responsible
ladies, it attempted to guarantee that society would reach the highest ideals
of religious fundamentalism. With the secularization of religion and
the subsequent erosion of the Temperance Society, the Politically Correct
movement provides society with a new means of control. Piloted by young
academics, this new movement aspires to create a society which fulfils the
highest ideals of democracy. Perhaps, the new movement will have as
much effect on Newfoundland
and Labrador as its predecessor:
As a result of dedicated
temperance work, imports dropped from 277,808 gallons of liquor in 1838 to
94,268 in 1847; nine years later the total was up to 256,361 gallons.
In 1858 the Total Abstinence and Benefit Society was founded; and in 1883 the
Newfoundland Brewing Company. The Temperance League was rushed into the
breach in 1872; twenty years later the number of saloons in St. John’s had increased to
fifty-eight. (Poole, 1982: 16)
At
this juncture in history it appears as though the Politically Correct (PC)
movement may have had as much effect on Newfoundland and Labrador
as the prior restrictive order. However, academics are worried that
this new movement may create intellectual rigidity as it seems to be based
more on harassment and intimidation, rather than open debate
(MacLean’s, 1991: 45). One of the assumptions of this new
movement is that humor is a reflection of a particular attitude on the part
of the teller and the telling transfers this attitude to others. There
is no room for an alternative possibility – that humor may have a
life of its own void of any significant social commentary. While the PC
movement may be attempting to protect minorities from oppression, it may be
evolving toward its own self-contradiction by imposing a preordained
definition of reality on a new context. Deluze and Foucault both feel
“the intellectual is no longer commissioned to play the role of advisor
to the masses and critic of ideological content, but rather to become one
capable of providing instruments of analysis... Jean-Francois Lyotard takes
this position even a step further by adamantly declaring the death of those
intellectuals whose aim it is to speak on behalf of humanity in the name of
an abstract and moralistic truth... For Lyotard, there is no universal
subject capable of putting forth a new concept of the world” (Kritzman,
1988: xii). “Discourses dominant in a historical period and
geographical location determine what counts as true, important, or relevant,
what gets spoken and what remains unsaid” (Cherryholmes, 1988:
35). Here Foucault is reminding us that context remains the basis of
truth and acceptability.
Barry Adam recently analyzed new social movements and found that much of the
analysis of new social movements suffers from either too much or too little
attention given to a Marxian perspective. It becomes difficult to
conceptualize Newfoundland
humor as some new anti-state response to economic imperialism. The
Newfoundland culture is only new to those who have yet to encounter it, but
what it does share with other ‘new movements’ is “the right
to be ourselves without being crushed by the apparatuses of power, violence,
and propaganda” (Adam, 1993: 324). Adam sees ‘how people
come to identify themselves’ as basic to new social movements.
In
recent years, Newfoundlanders have become conscious of the fact that they
have a different culture which must be preserved. Many Newfoundlanders
are beginning to question the impact which Confederation may have had on the
Newfoundland culture (C.B.C., Here and Now, April 7, 1994): “Academics
have begun to write copiously about the Newfoundland soul and character and
about cultural revival, and there has been the development of what F.L.
Jackson terms ”‘Newfcult in the arts’”
(Overton, 1988: 6).
Throughout this report there has been an assumption that the humor of the
province is completely uniform; however, given the geographic isolation of
costal regions – variety exists. The writer of this
report has found one particular joke which he has told over 100 times and
discovered that all people from Newfoundland
and Labrador laughed; however, only one
third of non-natives enjoyed this joke. (Note: There is no
attempt at legitimate scientific connections in these assumptions). The
joke is about a Newfoundlander from the island portion who was in a field
with a bunch of sheep. He would grab a sheep, put it up to an apple
tree, give the sheep a bite and put it down. He was doing this with all
the sheep when a mainlander (a person who is not a native of the province)
came by and said, ”Sir, it’s none of my business, but you’d
save a lot of time if you climbed the tree, shook it and let the apples fall
and then the sheep could eat whenever they wanted.” The
Newfoundlander pondered for a few seconds and replied: “Bye,
what’s time to a sheep.” One of the important aspects of
this culture is the all-pervasive and spontaneous humor, as Peter Newman
recently states:
Great art, really great
art, whatever its format, must be guided by an invisible hand: the
spontaneous blossoming of humanity caught in a moment’s creative
impulse. That’s even more true of great people, like
Newfoundlanders. Spontaneity is their middle name.”
(Newman, Maclean’s, 1994: 45)
The
PC movement stands as the antithesis of spontaneity and hence of Newfoundland
culture. Allan Dershowitz comment on the effect this movement will have
on the academic community: “We will see far worse teaching as
teachers will have to think about every term, every illustration”
(Pack, Campus Culture Wars, 1993). The possibility of offence will
serve as an inhibiting force in even face-to-face interactions and pose a
threat to the spontaneity of the people and a threat to the culture.
The
Newfoundland
culture evolved from the precarious circumstances of the lives of the
people. The element of humor was functional for their adaptation in the
face of physical and economic uncertainty. It is a humor which is
intended to provide consensus and relief but not control and conflict
(Stebbins). As Newman states: “To be a Newfie is to be a
survivor. That great spirit is in jeopardy. They are about to
become an endangered species” (Newman, MacLean’s, 1994:
45). While Newman is primarily referring to the devastating impact that
the failure of the fishery is having and will have on the culture of the
island, the essential assumption is identical. One threat is economic
– the other ideological. The construction of knowledge is derived
from experience itself. As Foucault said: “How can the
subject tell the truth about itself?” (Kritzman, 1988: 38).
How can a Newfoundland
academic whose avocation is stand-up comedy accurately analyze the
relationship between Newfoundland
culture and the Politically Correct movement? How does someone who has
never lived in Newfoundland
interpret it? Economics and ideology must work for the preservation of
this culture!
(1) The value of any
culture ultimately depends not on good books or great art, but on the passage
of people’s seed from one generation to the next, on their link to the
soil and the sea. The Newfoundlanders’ life force is expressed
less in words than in deeds – in the compassion and humor they feel for
one another when there is nothing else available to share. That’s
what is really at stake in Newfoundland
these days. And that’s why Canadians who don’t live on the
Rock should not begrudge the relatively modest tax burden to keep our most
vibrant culture alive and kicking. (Newman, MacLean’s, 1994: 45).
The expression used for Canadians who are not from Newfoundland. They live physically
up and along from Newfoundland.
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The Unlikely Revolutionary. Toronto:
McClelland and Stewart.
Hill, Debora J. 1988. Humor in the Classroom: A Handbook
for Teachers (and Other Entertainers). Springfield, Illinois:
Charles C. Thomas.
Hillier, Harry H. 1991. Canadian
Society, A Macro Analysis. Scarborough:
Prentice-Hall.
Kritzman, Lawrence D. (ed.) 1988. Politics,
Philosophy, Culture. New
York: Routledge.
Levine, Lawrence 1994. ‘Laughing
Matters’ New York Times Book Review.
Matthews, Kearley and Dwyer (eds.) 1982. Our Newfoundland and Labrador Cultural Heritage/Part One,
Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice-Hall.
Newman, Peter C. 1994. ‘To
kill a people – dash their dream’, McLean’s, April
25: 45.
Overton, James
1988. ‘A Newfoundland
Culture?’ Journal of Canadian Studies, 23: (1 and 2).
Pack, Michael
1993. ‘Campus Culture
Wars’, Manifold Productions, (with South Carolina E.T.V.).
Poole, Cyril 1982. In
Search of the Newfoundland
Soul. St. John’s:
Harry Cuff Publications.
Pottle, Herbert Lench 1983. Fun on the Rock,
Toward a Theory of Newfoundland
Humor. St. John’s:
Breakwater Books.
Shalit, Gene (ed.) 1987. Laughing Matters. New York: Ballantine Books.
Stebbins, Robert
A. 1990. The
Laugh Makers. Montreal:
McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Story, Kirwin and Widdowson (eds.) 1990. Dictionary of
Newfoundland
English. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Other Related References
Ermarth, Elizabeth
Deeds 1992. Sequel to
History, Postmodernism and the Crisis of Representational Time. New Jersey: Princeton.
Forgacs, David (ed.) 1985. Antonio
Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings.
Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
Foucault, Michel
1972. The Archaeology of Knowledge. New York: Pantheon Books.
Martin and Baksh 1995. School Humor: Pedagogical and
Sociological Considerations, Memorial
University of Newfoundland.
Massumi, Brian 1992. A User’s guide to Capitalism
and Schizophrenia. Cambridge:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
McCormack, Thelma
1992 “Politically Correct”, Sociology and Anthropology
Bulletin. May.
Ryan D. and Rossiter T. (eds.) 1983 Literary Modes
(See Comic Mode) St. John’s:
Jesperson. 1984 The Newfoundland Character. St. John’s:
Jesperson Press.
Woods, Peter
1983 “Coping at School Through
Humor.” British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol.
4, No. 2.
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