Many graduate and undergraduate programs require students to demonstrate their research knowledge by having them complete a major research paper, usually in the form of a thesis, folio, or project. In programs involving a field experience or an internship, candidates are often asked to prepare a similar paper though on a smaller scale. All of these papers start with a proposal. Suggestions for initiating and carrying through the writing of a proposal are offered below.

    Several features are common to the development of all proposals. These include finding a legitimate area, identifying a specific topic within that area, identifying a researchable question or a legitimate need, developing a plan to address the question or need and, finally, the formal writing of the proposal. The final document thus states the problem or need, explains its importance, gives an overview of the supporting literature, and outlines your 'proposed' way of dealing with it.

The Starting Point - Understanding the Reasons for the Task

    Your research paper is not intended just to offer you one more learning experience or just to test you one more time! While the learning and testing aspects are certainly there, so is the goal of adding to the corpus of knowledge owned by your discipline. Your paper should be an original work that makes a contribution to your field. Your research focus must thus be legitimate or, in other words, recognized by others in the field as adding to the useful knowledge of the field.

    Your paper may contribute in various ways. In papers addressing a "question", the work may be of an exploratory, descriptive or hypothetical nature. Exploratory papers seek to identify or perhaps support the existence of phenomena and novel, not understood situations, patterns or relationships deemed to be of potential importance or significance. Here the research explores the phenomenon to determine if it is 'real' and not a mis-perception, hoax or some type of error. Descriptive papers follow closely on exploratory papers. In these, the effort is to describe phenomena and catalogue the attributes of those events which have been delimited. In hypothetical papers, one seeks theoretical (i.e., constructed) explanations for the information or data gathered through descriptive research. Here, one might alternatively seek to identify predictive relationships that exist within the information described.

    In "need focused" papers, the effort is toward the clarification of issues, the development of theoretical positions or the summarizing and integration of information. "Need" focused papers (i.e., projects) can also be aimed at solving problems through developing intervention strategies or perhaps the creation of new resources or services. In both "question" and "need" focused papers, an original contribution is offered.

A Closer Look at the Goals for Each Type of Research Paper

    As suggested, differing types of papers have both shared and more unique, goals. All demand scholarship and all use an academic or scientific methodology to address their target. A folio might explore a question by organizing information, clarifying or identifying issues, summarizing or encouraging policy development or perhaps critically assessing and/or suggesting new directions or initiatives. A project is a need focused paper which typically collects together background information and, based on this information, creates or proposes a new way of meeting that need. A thesis usually seeks to answer a question by verifying and supporting positions, by demonstrating or refuting the existence of particular hypothesized relationships or by testing the legitimacy of a position, explanation or model.

    What is done in any the above papers overlaps with what is typically done in an internship. The difference rests primarily in the more limited scope of the work. While it is the goal that an internship study address a need or question of interest to the discipline, this paper is often aimed at meeting a situation specific to a particular setting.

Finding an Area and a Specific Topic or Question

    A common question proposed by a candidate is: "What will I do my paper on?". Many people find it hard to narrow down their broad interests to a single specific focus. It is common for a student to say: "I know I want to work in the area of ____ but I don't know exactly what should I focus on". Finding an area, then a topic and finally a focus (i.e., question or need to address) within that area are three somewhat discrete tasks.

(a) Finding Your Area

    Finding an area must be your first priority. This task requires you to answer questions like "What would I like to work on for the next three to six (and often more) months?" The most common route begins with your pursuing an interest or topic which is of personal relevance or is a source of genuine curiosity. Perhaps some topic based on your background, a major event in your life, or even a chance comment might offer a start. Some students go to faculty members and ask about areas within the discipline that are current and worthy of in-depth study. Some have the good fortune to find a faculty member whose suggestions "match" what is of interest to the candidate. When a faculty member's interest aligns with yours, you often can skip the next step!

(b) Finding a Topic

    Once you have identified an area, you will virtually always find many topics or aspects of that area which could be further researched. There is no known single, quick and easy way to identify a topic. Finding a topic involves addressing questions like: "What do I want to know more about within the area?" or "On what aspect or specialization within the discipline and profession do I want to become more expert?" The topic you pursue will be one about which you will become very informed and one on which you will become a specialist. Often the specific topic you focus upon will follow closely from the same background interest that guided you to the broader discipline or area in the first place! Sometimes a professor or a faculty advisor will alert you to topics or situations that need addressing as you proceed through your program.

    The typical routes to identifying a topic involve reflecting on your growing professional interests, talking to professors, scanning texts in the area and learning about what others (both faculty and peers) are doing. Occasionally topics of discussion in special interest or "chat groups" which are found on the World Wide Web might provide a stimulus. Sometimes, a faculty member, recognizing an aspect of your interest or a personal strength, will encourage you to join his or her research. You must be open to a range topics.

    If you do not find a topic of personal relevance and personal interest to you, you are likely to find the completion of a major piece of research quite difficult. It should be noted that it is common for a student's interest in a topic to grow as a result of becoming immersed in that literature.

(c) Finding a Question or a Need

    Once you have identified your area and a topic, you need to continue to narrow your search and to identify the very specific aspect of the topic that you will focus upon. This focus is the question or need that you will address in your research report. Making your focus clear and explicit usually involves a great deal of writing and redefinition and, of course, thought! It also often involves some false starts and the need, perhaps a number of times, to readjust your focus. It is common to start with a question or focus which, while important, is too broad or too comprehensive to be dealt with within the confines of your program. You may find, as you work along, that your question has been largely answered, that the need you identified has been met or that the interest within the field in your focus is low and hence the legitimacy of your effort is questionable. Often, even though the question or need is legitimate, an original or practical way to address your concern simply cannot be found!

    Some students are initially disappointed when they are encouraged by their advisors to focus on a need or question that is much more narrow and specific than was their original aim. It is often difficult for students, early on, to appreciate how important (and time consuming) it is for scholars to take the many small steps associated developing new knowledge. There is an immense effort invested in each of the many individual references cited after a single statement in an article or paper!

    Advisors usually assume, when you approach them, that you have identified an area and probably a topic. Many assume you already have a research focus or question and that you are seeking ways to address, refine or make operational your question! It is usual for you to be asked to supply a two or three page draft of your ideas which outlines what you are seeking to study and how you plan to go about the task. From these early steps and after much discussion, critical thinking, redefining, planning, literature review and rewriting, you will eventually draft your proposal.

(d) Suggestions If You Have No Topic and No Question

    If your question is "Where do I start?", there is no single easy answer or no formula that is guaranteed to work. There are, however, some strategies that might help. Assume that looking for a focus will require you to be very active and very focused. When starting out, it can be useful to read early and late chapters in recent books in your area that are focused on issues. Look for the questions, needs or unresolved issues that these identify. Often ideas will come from the conclusions of recent theses and research reports wherein your predecessors have identified areas needing further work. It can be useful to start by identifying the key journals publishing in your area and reviewing the types of studies and topics that are current.

    If you choose to follow the journal route, try photocopying the tables of content for the past one to two years from four or five key area journals. In studying these you will find what questions and topics are being currently researched and quite likely find certain papers and topics that draw your attention. Mark the most interesting article(s) in each issue and collect, as a separate list, each of these "more interesting" articles. Prioritize this list to form your own personal "most interesting" list. Next read these articles and, perhaps with the help of an advisor, reflect on both these questions or needs and ways to address them.

    It is highly recommended that, as soon as you begin framing your question (i.e., drafting your proposal), you force yourself to write a title for your final paper (and of course, your proposal). If necessary, actually create a list of possible titles you develop. These titles are extremely important as they will both direct your thinking and impose limits on what you are doing should your start, as most pre proposal writers do, to wander inappropriately!

What to Do Once You have a Topic

    A proposal is a clear statement of your focus, a sample of the literature supporting the legitimacy of that focus, a sample of the background literature on your specific topic and, finally, a detailed description of the activities you propose to carry out to address your specific question or need. Early drafts of your proposal must be carefully reviewed to ensure that what you are doing is within the scope of your time and resources and that it meets the expectations of your advisor and the applicable regulations.

    It is suggested that the following steps be taken once you have an area or a possible topic identified:

(a) Meet with your advisor to more clearly delimit the topic. (This is when you draft what might be the title of your document and when you likely will be asked to write a brief statement of your ideas.)
(b) Initiate a literature review to determine if your topic has already been extensively researched. Here is where you begin to identify possible supporting literature.
(c) Start drafting your actual proposal. Keep in mind that your proposal tends to gradually become your final paper. In other words, if you do more work at the beginning, you will have less to do at the end!
(d) Consider adopting the following proposal format:

Title Page
Table of Contents
Introduction

-Statement of problem/ focus
-Significance of study
-Background of question
- May include aims, hypotheses or research questions
-May include definitions
-May include limitations of study/folio/project
-Summary of Relevant Literature

For a Thesis:

-State research method or procedures to be followed

-May include: participants/ sample, instrumentation, procedure to be followed, data collection methods, and data analysis procedures

For a Folio:

-Include tentative individual paper titles

-Include an overview of each paper as well as its goal and a clear statement of the issues addressed in each

-Include a tentative sub-topic and/or headings list

-May include statements on the style and format you plan to use

For a Project:

-Include a verbal description of the actual product you plan to develop

-Include how you plan to go about creating the product (i.e., consultation, field testing and evaluation strategy)

- May include information related to a need assessment

For an Internship:

Note: It is useful to see your proposal as having two parts, the first dealing with the professional experiences you will engage in during the internship and the second a description of the embedded research component.

-May include a statement of the regulations and university expectations associated with an internship

-Include a verbal description of your setting, your supervision, duration

-Include a detailed listing of your goals and how you propose to meet them

-Include, often as a final general goal the completion of a study aimed at...

-Include (perhaps as "Part 2") a mini-proposal outlining the research you plan to complete. Usually interns complete a thesis-like or project-like type of paper. The contents of this component will depend on the type of study you plan to do. Suggestions for each type are found above.

    A useful strategy for developing a proposal involves your first reading and developing an overview of an area, second (without making detailed use of the previously reviewed literature) drafting an outline of what you want to do and why, and third returning to the literature to seek support for and clarification of what you proposed.

Getting an Advisor

    Early in the process, perhaps when you are seeking an area and certainly when you are specifying your focus, you should be seeking an advisor. Getting an advisor typically means first going to the chair or academic administrator of your area and seeking advice as to policies and procedures that you might follow. This person may suggest individuals to contact. It is also useful to learn about what might be expected of Faculty and about how many students different advisors are working with. Getting the advice of students further along in the process than you is also highly recommended. Next it is necessary to begin beating on doors and seeking support. Keep in mind that advisors want and need students! They are especially interested when the work you wish to do complements or builds on work the advisor is already doing.

    When seeking an advisor, be prepared to be flexible. While it is good to have thought through some ideas, the more detailed and firm your ideas are, the greater you run the risk of the advisor not being interested or not agreeing with what you are proposing to do.

    Also bear in mind that you will need to spend a lot of time with your advisor. Pick someone you feel you can work with. Also pick someone who will have both the skills and the time you need.

A Closing Thought

    Gaining expertise is a key personal reason for doing research. What you learn about your area and what you learn about thinking critically and actually doing research contribute very significantly to making you an expert. The effort is worth it!

    Realize that writing a proposal and designing a good piece of research is typically much more difficult than actually carrying through your plan. You can succeed at both. Although the acts of writing your proposal and finally finishing your paper together probably represent the biggest academic task you have ever taken on to date, by taking one step at a time and trusting both yourself and the people around you it will get done. When in doubt, look at all the other students who have made it!

Helpful Sources

American Psychological Association (1995). Publication Manual. Washington, D.C.: Author.

Lane, J.D. and Foster, S.L. (1993). Dissertations and Thesis from Start to Finish. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Sternberg, R.J. (1993). The Psychologist's Companion. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Newman, I. (1997). Theses and Dissertations: A Guide to writing in the Social and Physical Sciences. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America,

Locke, L. F., Spirduso, W. W. & Silverman, S. J. (1993). Proposals that work: A guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

Long, T.J., Convey, J.J. & Chwalek, A.R. (1985). Completing dissertations in the behavioral sciences and education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass